1. WHAT IS TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION?
(Maxwell, 2009). Image: From Adobe Stock [Photograph] by Pixel-Shot / Education License – Standard Image
When you hear the term “technical communication,” what comes to mind? Perhaps you think of scientific reports, specifications, instructions, software documentation, or technical manuals. You might also think of the audience, requirements, the digital tools used to create the documentation along with the platforms for making the documentation available, and the research that goes into creating that documentation. And you would be correct. Technical communication is an umbrella term that encompasses all these elements, including technical writing. Technical writing is a genre of non-fiction writing that encompasses not only technical materials such as manuals, instructions, specifications, and software documentation, but also writing produced in day-to-day business operations such as correspondence, proposals, internal communications, media releases, and many kinds of reports. It includes the communication of specialized technical information, whether relating to computers and scientific instruments, or the intricacies of meditation. Technical communication also includes oral and visual presentations as they are an important part of professional life. This first part of the text introduces you to the basic concepts related to technical communication overall.
Technical communication is a process of managing technical information in ways that allow people to take action (Johnson-Sheehan, 2015). The key words in this definition are process, manage, and action. In this course, you will learn the process of technical communication so you can manage large amounts of information in ways that allow you and your readers (audience) to take action. Technical communication is learning how to manage the flow of information to accomplish tasks.
Chapter 1 Learning Objectives
This chapter will help you to understand what technical writing is, why its important, and what it looks like:
1.1 Apply a “problem-solving” approach to communications tasks, starting by learning how to fully define the problem before looking for solutions.
1.2 Recognize the main conventions and characteristics of technical writing, and how they differ from other forms, such as academic and journalistic writing.
1.3 Understand the importance of defining the “rhetorical situation” in which you are communicating.
1.4 Apply what you have learned so far by examining “case studies” that demonstrate the costs of poor communication.
1.5 Appreciate the complexity and iterative nature of a writing process in determining what writing process works best for you.
Why are Technical Communication Skills Important?
You may be wondering why a technical communication course is included in your program. Information in the technical fields must be conveyed with precision and clarity. Failing that, inaccuracies can creep into the content of messages resulting in costly and, sometimes, catastrophic errors. Technical communication courses offer opportunities for you to learn the skills and techniques for communicating effectively and efficiently.
In a recent presentation, Sean McConkey of the University of Victoria revealed the following statistics regarding the importance of communication skills in the professional world of engineering (2017):
The Reality: Technical Writing and Communication
- How graduate engineers spend their time:
- 25-50% Problem-solving of some kind
- 50-75% Communicating (Writing and reading reports, letters, memos, proposals, presentations, discussions w/colleagues, managers, clients)
- Performance evaluations and job advancement usually depend more on communications skills than on technical skills.
He added that engineers who are more advanced in their careers spend only 5-10% of their time engaged in problem-solving of some kind and 90-95% of their time engaging in related communications tasks: researching, writing and reading reports, proposals, emails, letters, memos; giving or attending presentations; discussing and meeting with colleagues, teammates, managers, clients, and so forth. In a recent survey of over 1000 professionals from various professions, over 70% of engineers and almost 50% of programmers rated the quality of their writing as either “very important” or “extremely important” to the performance of their jobs (Swartz, et al., 2018). Clearly, as Barry Hyman (2002) asserts in Fundamentals of Engineering Design, “the stereotype that engineering is for inarticulate nerds is way off base.”
Technical communication is ‘transactional,’ involving a purposeful exchange of information between sender and receiver for practical purposes like informing, instructing, or persuading, tailored to a specific audience. Technical communicators produce a wide variety of documents and other products, such as
- Proposals and requests for proposals (RFPs)
- Technical or research reports
- Documentation records and product specifications
- User guides (step-by-step instructions, procedures, manuals)
- Online help, technical support
- Reference information (encyclopedia-style information)
- Consumer literature (information for the public about regulations, safety issues, etc.)
- Marketing literature (product specifications, brochures, promotional literature)
- Technical journalism (found in trade magazines, media releases, etc.)
A 2016 Seneca College survey of professionals working in civil, mechanical, and building systems engineering revealed that among these forms of documentation and communication the following were identified as the top five in-demand in technical workplaces (Potter, 2017):
| Top Five Documents | Top Five Report Types |
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Technical communication is a highly “designed” form of communication that requires practitioners to have a heightened awareness of the conventions (rules and expectations) and rhetorical situations (audience, purpose, context) in which they are communicating.
This textbook aims to provide you with that heightened awareness – that is, to introduce you to the basic conventions of technical communications, and to train you to take a reader-centred or audience-centred approach to communications tasks, to find the tools and methods that will work best to communicate your ideas to your target audience, and to achieve the desired results.
Technical communication transmits detailed and complex information. An instruction manual, for example, has a lot of detail but little complexity. On the other hand, an equation for atomic fission may be less than a page, but its complexity would make it highly technical. Your purpose in technical writing is to transmit information – highly complex and detailed information – in a format that readers can understand (Balzotti, 2018).
Technical writing is used by professionals and end-users to address real-world issues in practical ways. The primary aim is to use language and visuals to assist readers in achieving their objectives. In a professional context, these objectives might include helping employees learn crucial job-related information, complete tasks effectively, or make critical decisions that impact the company’s long-term security. Regardless of the specific objective, technical writing should be clear, accessible, and understandable to enable readers to accomplish their tasks effectively using the information provided. Technical writing is characterized by strict conventions (genres or superstructure), a clear purpose, coverage of complex information, a focus on the reader, and an objective tone.
What Does Technical Writing Look Like?
Technical communications can take many forms, depending on the purpose and intended audience. However, the style of technical writing is distinctive. Consider the following example of technical writing, which is part of a chapter on Basic Flight Maneuvers from the Airplane Flying Handbook by the Federal Aviation Association (updated March 2022). From the excerpt in the box below, what can you tell about the intended audience?
Introduction
Airplanes operate in an environment that is unlike an automobile. Drivers tend to drive with a fairly narrow field of view and focus primarily on forward motion. Beginning pilots tend to practice the same. Flight instructors face the challenge of teaching beginning pilots about attitude awareness; which requires understanding the motions of flight. An airplane rotates in bank, pitch, and yaw while also moving horizontally, vertically, and laterally. The four fundamentals (straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents) are the principal maneuvers that control the airplane through the six motions of flight.
The Four Fundamentals
To master any subject, one should first master the fundamentals. For flying, this includes straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents. All flying tasks are based on these maneuvers, and an attempt to move on to advanced maneuvers prior to mastering the four fundamentals hinders the learning process.
Consider the following: a takeoff is a combination of a ground roll, which may transition to a brief period of straight-and-level flight and a climb. After-departure includes the climb and turns toward the first navigation fix and is followed by straight-and-level flight. The preparation for landing at the destination may include combinations of descents, turns, and straight-and-level flight. In a typical general aviation (GA) airplane, the final approach ends with a transition from descent to straight-and-level while slowing for the touchdown and ground roll.
The flight instructor needs to impart competent knowledge of these basic flight maneuvers so that the beginning pilot is able to combine them at a performance level that at least meets the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Airman Certification Standards (ACS) or Practical Test Standards (PTS). As the beginning pilot progresses to more complex flight maneuvers, any deficiencies in the mastery of the four fundamentals are likely to become barriers to effective and efficient learning.
Effect and Use of Flight Controls
The airplane flies in an environment that allows it to travel up and down as well as left and right. Note that movement up or down depends on the flight conditions. If the airplane is right-side up relative to the horizon, forward control stick or wheel (elevator control) movement will result in a loss of altitude. If the same airplane is upside-down relative to the horizon that same forward control movement will result in a gain of altitude. [Figure 1-1] The following discussion considers the pilot’s frame of reference with respect to the flight controls. [Figure 1-2]
Figure 1-1. Basic flight controls and instrument panel.
Figure 1-2. The pilot is always considered the referenced center of effect as the flight controls are used.
With the pilot’s hand
- When pulling the elevator pitch control toward the pilot, which is an aft movement of the control wheel, yoke, control stick, or side stick controller (referred to as adding back pressure), the airplane’s nose will rotate backwards relative to the pilot around the pitch (lateral) axis of the airplane. Think of this movement from the pilot’s feet to the pilot’s head.
- When pushing elevator pitch control toward the instrument panel,(referred to as increasing forward pressure), the airplane rotates the nose forward relative to the pilot around the pitch axis of the airplane. Think of this movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s feet. When right pressure is applied to the aileron control, which rotates the control wheel or yoke clockwise, or deflects the control stick or side stick to the right, the airplane’s right wing banks(rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s right hip.
- When left pressure is applied to the aileron control, which rotates the control wheel or yoke counterclockwise, or deflects the control stick or side stick to the left, the airplane’s left wing banks (rolls) lower in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the pilot’s head to the pilot’s left hip.
With the pilot’s feet:
- When forward pressure is applied to the right rudder pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the right in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the pilot’s left shoulder to the pilot’s right shoulder.
- When forward pressure is applied to the left rudder pedal, the airplane’s nose moves (yaws) to the left in relation to the pilot. Think of this movement from the pilot’s right shoulder to the pilot’s left shoulder.
While in flight, the control surfaces remain in a fixed position as long as all forces acting upon them remain balanced. Resistance to movement increases as airspeed increases and decreases as airspeed decreases. Resistance also increases as the controls move away from a streamlined position. While maneuvering the airplane, it is not the amount of control surface displacement the pilot needs to consider, but rather the application of flight control pressures that give the desired result.
The pilot should hold the pitch and roll flight controls (aileron and elevator controls, yoke, stick, or side-stick control) lightly with the fingers and not grab or squeeze them with the entire hand. When flight control pressure is applied to change a control surface position, the pilot should exert pressure on the aileron and elevator controls with the fingers only. This is an important concept and habit to learn. A common error with beginning pilots is that they grab the aileron and elevator controls with a closed palm with such force that sensitive feeling is lost. Pilots may wish to consider this error at the onset of training as it prevents the development of “feel,” which is an important aspect of airplane control.
So that slight rudder pressure changes can be felt, both heels should support the weight of the pilot’s feet on the floor with the ball of each foot touching the individual rudder pedals. The legs and feet should be relaxed. When using the rudder pedals, pressure should be applied smoothly and evenly by pressing with the ball of one foot. Since the rudder pedals are interconnected through springs or a direct mechanical linkage and act in opposite directions, when pressure is applied to one rudder pedal, foot pressure on the opposite rudder pedal should be relaxed proportionately.
In summary, during flight, the pressure the pilot exerts on the aileron and elevator controls and rudder pedals causes the airplane to move about the roll (longitudinal), pitch (lateral), and yaw (vertical) axes. When a control surface moves out of its streamlined position (even slightly), moving air exerts a force against that surface. It is this force that the pilot feels on the control.
Attitude Flying
An airplane’s attitude is determined by the angular difference between a specific axis and the natural horizon. A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. This is an important concept because it requires the pilot to develop a pictorial sense of this natural horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose to the tail of the airplane, and the natural horizon. Bank attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis, which extends from wingtip to wingtip, and the natural horizon. [Figures 1-3(A) and 1-3(B)] Angular difference about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is an attitude relative to the airplane’s direction of flight but not relative to the natural horizon.
Figure 1-3(A) and (B). Pitch attitude is the angle formed between the airplane’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose to tail of the airplane, and the natural horizon. (B) Bank attitude is the angle formed by the airplane’s lateral axis, which extends from wingtip to wingtip, and the natural horizon.
Controlling an airplane requires one of two methods to determine the airplane’s attitude in reference to the horizon. When flying “visually” in visual meteorological conditions (VMC), a pilot uses their eyes and visually references the airplane’s wings and cowling to establish the airplane’s attitude to the natural horizon (a visible horizon). If no visible horizon can be seen due to clouds, whiteouts, haze over the ocean, night over a dark ocean, etc., it is IMC for practical and safety purposes. [Figure 1-4] When flying in IMC or when cross-checking the visual references, the airplane’s attitude is controlled by the pilot referencing the airplane’s mechanical or electronically-generated instruments to determine the airplane’s attitude in relation to the natural horizon.
Figure 1-4. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.
Airplane attitude control is composed of four components: pitch control, bank (roll) control, power control, and trim.
- Pitch control—controlling of the airplane’s pitch attitude about the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon or to the airplane’s flight instrumentation.
- Bank control—controlling of the airplane about the airplane’s longitudinal axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired bank angle in relation to the natural horizon or to the airplane’s instrumentation.
- Power control—controlled by the throttle in most general aviation (GA) airplanes and is used when the flight situation requires a specific thrust setting or for a change in thrust to meet a specific objective.
- Trim control—used to relieve the control pressures held by the pilot on the flight controls after a desired attitude has been attained.
Note: Yaw control is used to cancel out the effects of yaw-induced changes, such as adverse yaw and effects of the propeller.
Measures of Excellence in Technical Documents
Measures of excellence in technical communication refer to the criteria or standards used to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of technical communication products. For example, a technical document may be considered excellent if it is clear and easy to understand, provides accurate and comprehensive information, is well-organized and concise, and meets the needs of its intended audience. Similarly, a technical presentation may be evaluated based on its clarity, relevance, engagement, and ability to effectively convey complex information.
These measures can include various aspects such as clarity, accuracy, completeness, conciseness, organization, usability, accessibility, and audience appropriateness. They ensure that technical communication products meet high standards and effectively serve their intended purpose:
- Clarity: It should be clear and easy to understand for the intended audience. This includes using simple language, avoiding (or limiting) jargon, and providing clear explanations of complex concepts.
- Accuracy: Information presented in technical documents should be accurate and up-to-date. This includes verifying facts, figures, and data before including them in the document.
- Completeness: Technical documents should be comprehensive and cover all relevant information related to the topic. This ensures that readers have all the information they need to understand the subject matter.
- Conciseness: While being complete, technical documents should also be concise, avoiding unnecessary words or information. This helps to keep the document focused and easy to read.
- Correctness in technical writing refers to adherence to the conventions of grammar, punctuation, spelling, mechanics, and language usage. Errors in these areas can confuse readers or lead to inaccuracies. Additionally, incorrect writing can make the author appear unprofessional. Readers may question the writer’s attention to detail in gathering, analyzing, and presenting technical information. This lack of professionalism can undermine the credibility of the document and reduce reader trust in the author’s conclusions and recommendations.
- Relevance: Technical documents should be relevant to the needs and interests of the audience. This means focusing on information that is important and useful to the reader.
- Accessibility: Technical documents should be accessible to all readers, including those with disabilities. This includes using accessible formats and providing alternative formats when necessary.
- Usability: Technical documents should be easy to use and navigate. This includes providing clear headings, tables of contents, and indexes to help readers find information quickly.
- Visual Appeal: Technical documents should be visually appealing, with well-designed layouts, graphics, and illustrations that enhance understanding and engagement.
- Feedback Mechanism: Technical documents should provide a way for readers to provide feedback or ask questions. This helps to improve future versions of the document and shows that the writer values input from the audience.
EXERCISE 1.1 Draft some technical writing related to your interests
Reflect on the description and example of technical writing above in relation to your experience as an employee, as a student, or as a practitioner of a hobby. What kinds of documents have you written that could fall under the genre of Technical Writing?
Write a paragraph or two on a topic about which you have specialized knowledge and can use specialized terminology to explain the idea or instruct the reader. For example, you might write about effective techniques for executing certain skateboard maneuvers or how to execute a yoga position such as a “downward facing dog.” Consider your audience when choosing how to write this. Will the audience have to be familiar with the terminology used, as in the above sailing example? See if you can “baffle me with your techno-jargon” and then re-write for a general audience, using plain language.
References
Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.) Airplane Flying Handbook. Retrieved on April 15, 2024. https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/airplane_handbook
Balzotti, J. (2018). Technical Writing Essentials (2nd ed.). BYU Academic Publishing.
Hyman, B. (2002). Ch. 2: Problem formulation. In Fundamentals of Engineering Design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 42.
Johnson-Sheehan, R. (2015). Technical Communication Today (5th ed.). Pearson.
Maxwell, J. C. (2009). How successful people think: Change Your Thinking, Change Your Life. Center Street.
McConkey, S. (2017, March 17). Writing a work term report. ENGR 120 Plenary Lecture. University of Victoria.
Potter, R. L. (2017). TEC400 Technical communication course update. Presented at the METPAC meeting of March 21, 2017. Seneca College, Toronto.
Swartz, J., Pigg, S., Larsen, J., Helo Gonzalez, J., De Haas, R., & Wagner, E. (2018). Communication in the workplace: What can NC State students expect? Professional Writing Program. North Carolina State University. https://docs.google.com/document/d/1pMpVbDRWIN6HssQQQ4MeQ6U-oB-sGUrtRswD7feuRB0/edit
