Glossary

Nahgeib Miller

0.6 rule

A system for approximating the velocity of flow of a river

A strike-slip fault

A fault in which movement occurs along the strike of the fault plane and the crust is conserved

ablation

For glaciers, the amount of snow and ice lost in one year

abrasion

The wearing away of rock by sediments moving with the water

accumulation

For glaciers, the amount of snow and ice added in one year

alluvial fan

A fan-shaped depositing of sediments create by an abrupt change, from steep to shallow, in a river’s profile

amphibole group

Silicates in which two oxygens in a tetrahedron bond with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

anions

Ions that have resulted from an atom gaining an electron or electrons and that are thus negatively charged

Antecedent streams

Streams that develop on beds that are then deformed and folded

anticline

The upward fold in a rock layer

arêtes

Ridges where adjacent glacial valleys meet

arid

Describing conditions in which insufficient rainfall leads to extremely dry conditions

asteroids

In a planetary system, chunks of rock larger than meteoroids but smaller than a planet

asthenosphere

The plates that float on Earth’s upper mantle

atmosphere

The gaseous “ocean” that surrounds Earth

atom

The smallest part of an element that retains its physical and chemical properties

aurora borealis

Arches of light in the upper atmosphere near the poles. Aurora Borealis at the north pole and aurora Australis at the south pole.

avalanche

(n.) The rapid fall of material down a mountainside or cliff face; (v.) to tumble as an avalanche

axial precession

Cyclic “wobble” in Earth’s axis of rotation

azimuth

An angle less than 90° as defined within a quadrant with cardinal directions

banding

In rock, a thick striped pattern of different mineral compositions

basal slip

For glaciers, glacial motion as a block over lubricated bedrock

basins

A depression in the Earth crust

batholith

The largest size of discordant intrusion

bearing

An angle between 0° and 360°

bedding sequence

An outcrop consisting of multiple layers of sediments deposited in different environments

Big Gap

An unconformity created by a period of erosion followed by non-deposition 350 million to 2 million years ago

Biological sedimentary rock

Rock derived from shell and skeleton fragments of biological organisms

biosphere

All living organisms on Earth

bioturbation

The creating of hollow tubes in substrate by burrowing benthic animals

bombs

The largest particles of pyroclastic igneous rock

braided

Of a stream, flowing in many channels simultaneously

Brunisolic soils

Residual soils with a brownish B horizon

Burial

The covering of sediments by later sediment layers

Burial metamorphism

Transformation of rock by pressure from rock layers deposited above

Canadian Shield

The basement rocks of the Precambrian age in Eastern Canada and the northeastern United States characterized by granitic igneous rocks and gneisses of igneous origin

capacity

For streams, the total amount of sediments a stream can carry*combine with previous definition in same location

cations

Ions that have resulted from an atom giving up an electron or electrons and that are thus positively charged

cementation

The binding together of sediments by minerals to form rock

channel

The bottom of a valley in which a stream flows

chemical reaction

The interaction of two or more atoms of elements in a certain fixed ratio or proportion

Chemical sedimentary rock

Rock derived from mineral precipitate

Chemical weathering

Chemical reactions that break down rock when minerals come in contact with air and water

Chernozemic soils

Soils with high carbonate concentration and a dark A horizon

cirque

A roughly circular basin with cone-shaped sides

Cleavage

The tendency for a mineral to break along planar surfaces

cohesion

A property of sticking together due to electrostatic forces

compaction

The creation of rock of through removal of water by pressure

competence

The measure of the largest size of rock particle a stream or glacier can carry

Composition

The relative proportions of the different types of minerals in a rock

Concordant intrusions

Magmatic intrusions that follow cracks and natural zones of weakness in the surrounding country rock

Contact metamorphism

Transformation of rock by the heat from adjacent magma

Continental crust

The less dense portion of Earth’s crust, with higher silicate content than oceanic crust

continental drift

The movement of continents carried with plates of Earth’s crust

Continental glaciers

Slow-moving, thick sheets of ice covering a large part of a continent

convection

An upward and downward cycle of movement caused by the flow of heat energy in a system

convergence zone

A region in which plates meet

convergent boundaries

A meeting of plates where plates move toward each other

country rock

The unmelted rock into which magma is intruded

covalent bonding

The sharing of electrons between atoms

creep

The very slow movement of unconsolidated material down a slope

cross-bedding

A sedimentary structure created by migrating ripples or dunes

crust

The thin outer portion of Earth consisting of solid rock

Crysolic soils

Permafrost soils

crystal habit

The geometric description of the overall shape of a completely developed mineral

cut-off meander

A stream path across adjacent cutbanks

cutbanks

The banks on the outside curves of a meander

deductive reasoning

A logical process that goes from the general to the specific

deep time

Time in the order of millions to billions of years

deform

A change in dimension of a solid material

Dendritic drainage

A branching waterflow pattern

Deposition

The coming to rest of sediments in their environments

diagenesis

The physical and chemical changes in sediment resulting in lithification

differentiation

The separation of one material into separate constituent materials, as in the division of Earth into separate layers

dike

A concordant intrusion created when magma solidifies in a crack that cuts across the layers in the host rock

dip

A measurement of the tilt to the horizontal of bedding planes, fault planes, and fold axes of rock

Dip-slip faults

Faults in which movement occurs along the dip of the planar crack

Discordant intrusions

Magmatic intrusions that do not follow the prevailing geology of the country rock

divergent boundaries

Margins at which plates move away from each other on either side

dome

A shaping of the Earth crust like an inverted bowl

Double-chain tetrahedra

Silicates in which two oxygens in a tetrahedron bond with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

drift

Material of glacial origin

drumlins

Large, streamlined hills of till and bedrock

dunes

Wide structures formed by sediments transported at the base of flowing water or wind

electrons

Negatively charged particles that orbit an atom’s nucleus and that take part in atomic reactions

end moraine

Prominent glacial deposit at the ice front

Erosion

The process that removes newly created sediments

Erosional landforms

Landforms created by the scarping and plucking action of glacial ice as it is created and moves downslope

erratics

Large boulders deposited by glaciers

eskers

A ridge of sand and gravel in a ground moraine

exfoliation

The exposure of rock by the removal of other strips from its surface

Extrusive igneous rocks

Those that form from magma that erupts at the surface as lava

fault breccia

Rock created from fragments along a fault

faults

Planar cracks in deformed rock along which movement occurs

faunal and floral succession

The pattern by which species of animals (fauna) and plants (flora) come after each other in evolutionary history

feldspar group

Silicates with few cation bonds

felsic

Of igneous rock, that are rich in feldspars and quartz

Felsic igneous rocks

Rocks rich in feldspars and quartz minerals

firn

Granular ice with low air content

fjords

Flooded post-glacial steep U-shaped valleys

floodplain

The flat part of the valley immediately adjacent to the channel

Flow

The fluid movement of matter

folds

A shaping of rock layers with an axis between limbs

foliation

The realignment of platy minerals such that their long axes is perpendicular to the direction of compressive force

footwall

Layers of split rock beneath the plane in a fault

fossil assemblages

Grouping of fossils in the rock record

fracture

The tendency for a mineral to break along irregular surfaces

Framework tetrahedra

Silicates with few cation bonds

frost wedging

The process by which water entering zones of weakness in rock freezes, opening up a larger crack

galloping glacier

A glacier that moves at up to 50 metres per day

geologic time scale

A diagram that shows the rock succession (rock record) as if we were indeed able to cut a slice through the crust

glaciers

Large masses of ice on land that are in motion or that show evidence of once having moved

glass

A three-dimensional array of elements with a chaotic pattern

Gleysolic soils

Soils with greyish or mottled A, B, or C horizons due to prolonged or intermittent lack of aeration

gorge

A canyon or steep-walled valley cut by a stream through a mountainous region

graben

A depression caused by a series of normal faults resulting in a rift valley

graded bedding sequence

An order of layering of sedimentary rocked associated with a fluvial environment

granoblastic textures

Fine to coarse grains of interlocking crystals with little or no foliation

Great Unconformity

The result of a period of erosion then non-deposition ~800 million to ~600 million years ago

ground moraine

Unsorted sediment deposited at the base of the glacier

groundmass

In porphyritic igneous rock, minerals surrounding phenocrysts

Gullies

The beginnings of stream channels in a rock indentation

half-life

The time taken for half the parent atoms to decay into daughter atoms

hanging valley

A tributary valley with a floor above that of the valley its waters empty into

hanging wall

Layers of split rock above the plane in a fault

Hardness

A measure of how resistant a mineral is to being scratched

headward erosion

Erosion of rock creating gullies that seem to migrate upstream in the headwaters

Horizon A

The top zone of a soil profile, consisting of the humus layer, quartz, and clays

Horizon B

The middle zone of a soil profile where soluble minerals are oxidized and deposited

Horizon C

The zone in a soil profile dominated by bedrock altered by weathering

Horizon D

Is the zone in a soil profile dominated by unaltered/unweathered bedrock

horizons

The zones of a soil profile, defined by their contents

horn

A pointed peak of a mountain created by adjacent cirques

horst

A raised section of rock between normal faults

hotspot volcanism

The rising of superheated magma from the mantle–core boundary as a jet or plume

humus layer (O-horizon)

An organic rich soil layer

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction of a substance with water

hydrosphere

The water of Earth, in all its phases: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapour)

hypothesis

A tentative explanation based inductive reasoning from empirical evidence

Ice caps

Polar ice masses

Ice-laid deposits

Deposits of till left directly by retreating glaciers

Igneous rocks

Rocks formed by the crystallization or solidification of magma or lava

inductive reasoning

A logical process that uses a specific observation to make a generalization

inner core

The portion of Earth’s core 5150–6370 km deep

intermediate

Of igneous rock, with equal amounts of felsic and mafic minerals

Intrusive igneous rocks

Those that form from magma that cools and solidifies within Earth’s crust

ionic bonding

A transfer of electrons from one atom to another

ions

An atom or molecule that has gained or lost an electron or electrons

Isolated tetrahedra

A silicate structure in which a silicate anion is separated from an adjacent anion by a cation

isotopes

Atoms of an element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

joints

Planar cracks with similar and/or related orientations

Kames

Small hills of sand and gravel deposited at or near the edge of a glacier

kettle lakes

Kettles occupied by water

Kettles

Depressions formed when ice left by glaciers melts beneath sediments

lamellar flow

The following of smooth and generally parallel paths by fluid particles

lateral moraine

Glacial sedimentary deposits parallel to glacier flow

lee side

The steep concave side of a bedload sediment formation

leeward slope or lee slope

The concave, downstream-facing profile of ripples and dunes

left lateral strike-slip fault

A fault characterized by movement of the layers on one side of the plane to the left

levees

Raised lines of deposited sediment constraining a stream to a channel

lithification

Transformation of sediments into rock

lithosphere

The crust of Earth

Lustre

A description of how the surface of a mineral reflects light

Luvisolic soils

Clay-dominant soils with a light A horizon and dark B horizons

mafic

Of igneous rock, that are rich in magnesium and iron cations

Mafic igneous rock

Rock rich in metallic cations of magnesium and iron

mantle

That portion of Earth between the core and crust that consists of semi-molten rock

mass wasting

Processes that cause the movement of soil and rock downslope

meanders

Alternating bends in a stream channel

medial moraine

Merged lateral moraines from adjacent glaciers

metamorphic facies

Categories of rock that correspond to particular environments during which they were transformed into their current state

Metamorphic rocks

Rocks formed from existing rocks in Earth’s crust

Metasomatism

Transformation of rock by the exchange of superheated water between the rock and magmatic intrusions

meteorites

Meteoroids that reach the surface of Earth

meteoroids

Particles of rock in a solar system that are not accreted into larger bodies

meteors

Meteoroids that burn up in Earth’s atmosphere

mica group

Silicates in which three oxygens bond with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

minerals

A naturally occurring solid, inorganic, three-dimensional array of specific chemical composition with an ordered crystalline structure

Moh’s Scale of Hardness

A range from 1 to 10 defining the relative degree to which a mineral resists being scratched

Moraines

Accumulations of coarse rock, sand, and clay material carried by ice or deposited as till

morphology

The physical shape of a rock or landform due to large-scale processes that were incident on it

moulins

A near-vertical tube that forms in a glacier

mylonite

A texture of rock in which minerals are almost pulverized

nebula

A loose, slowly rotating amalgam of cosmic dust and gas

neutrons

Noncharged particles in an atom’s nucleus

normal fault

A fault in which the crust is extended

nucleus

The central, high-density portion of an atom consisting of protons and neutrons

Oblique slip faults

A fault characterized by movement of rock layers on opposite sides of the fault plan diagonal to each other

oceanic crust

The denser, more metallic portion of Earth’s crust with lower silicate content than continental crust

olivine group

Silicates in which oxygens of adjacent tetrahedra bond to a shared cation

orders

Categories of soil taxonomy

Organic soils

Soils of 30% or more organic matter

orogeny

The process of mountain building through plate collisions

outcrop

That portion of rock exposed at the surface of Earth

outer core

The inner portion of Earth, consisting of molten iron alloy

outwash

Drift that has been carried, modified, sorted, and distributed by meltwater streams

oxbow lake

A cut-off meander containing water

Oxidation

The reaction of minerals with oxygen from air or water, altering the mineral structure

oxides

Minerals with an oxygen anion

phenocryst

In porphyritic igneous rock, a relatively larger mineral surrounded by relatively smaller minerals

planetary accretion

The sweeping up of debris in the orbital path of planetesimals

planetesimals

Small spherical astronomical bodies of accreted rock

plastic deformation

For glaciers, glacial motion by of individual ice crystals’ passing each other

plate tectonics

The process of movement of segments of Earth’s crust on the mantle resulting in several geologic phenomena

plunge

The dip of a fold axis in the Earth crust along the axial plan

plutonic rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks

plutons

Formations of intrusive igneous rock

Podzolic soils

Soils with a grey layer near the top and with humus containing iron and aluminum oxide

point bars

The banks on the inside curves of a meander

pore spaces

The hollow spaces in between grains that are occupied by water, air, or a combination of both

porosity

A measurement of the hollow spaces in between grains that are occupied by water, air, or a combination of both

porphyry

A course-grained texture with different mineral sizes in intrusive igneous rock

principle of cross-cutting relationships

Lyell’s concept that abrupt interruptions in lateral continuity reflect events that occur after sediments were deposited and lithified

principle of lateral continuity

Steno’s concept that sediment layers become thinner the farther the sediments have been carried and that changes in topography can stop the formation of a sediment layer

principle of original horizontality

Steno’s concept that sediments, with few exceptions, are laid horizontally, such that most nonhorizontal layers have moved after deposition

principle of superposition

Steno’s concept that each rock layer in a formation is older than the layer above it

protons

Positively charged particles in an atom’s nucleus

pyroclastic igneous rocks

Rock solidified from airborne lava

pyroxene group

Silicates in which one oxygen in a tetrahedron bonds with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

quartz

Solid silica with no cation bonds

Radial drainage

A radial waterflow pattern away from the peak of a dome or volcano

Rectangular drainage

A rectangular waterflow pattern on jointed bedrock

regional metamorphism

The transformation of rock over a large area in the crust, usually under mountain belts

Regosolic soils

Soils with poorly developed profiles featuring slightly altered parent rock

Residual soils

Soils that evolve in one place

rift valley

A depression in Earth’s crust created by the separation of continental plates

right lateral strike-slip fault

Faults characterized by movement of the layers on one side of the plane to the right

Ripples

Narrow structures formed by sediments transported at the base of flowing water or wind

river

The major branch of a stream system

roches moutonées

Small glacier-created bedrock hills; also called “sheep rocks”

rock

Naturally occurring aggregate of minerals

Rock assemblages

Rocks that were laid down in a specific sequence, indicating a specific sequence of geologic processes acting in specific depositional environments

rock cycle

The creation and breaking down of rock in Earth’s crust and their interrelation

rock flour

Finely powdered rock material produced by weathering that occurs during glacial erosion

rock record

Currently existing rock, considered as reflecting the processes that originated it and the environments in which it formed

rounding

The smoothing of rock particles

saltation

The repeated carrying and deposition of sediments by a stream

schistosity

In rock, coarse layering of different mineral compositions

scientific method

The system of employing critical thought to investigate natural phenomena

Sedimentary rocks

Rocks formed from sediments

Sediments

Smaller pieces of rock created by the weathering of existing rock

sequence

The order of layering in sedimentary rock

Sheet tetrahedra

Silicates in which three oxygens bond with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

Shock metamorphism

Transformation of rock by meteorite impact

sidereal day

The 23-hour, 56-minute, 4.091-second Earth day

silica

SiO2

silicates

Minerals with a silicate anion

siliciclastic

Of sediments, consisting mainly of silicates of igneous origin

Siliciclastic sedimentary rock

Rock derived from weathered igneous rock

sill

A concordant intrusion created when magma solidifies along bedding directions

Single-chain tetrahedra

Silicates in which one oxygen in a tetrahedron bonds with the silicon of an adjacent tetrahedron

slaty cleavage

Weak foliation produced by low compressive forces

slide

Movement of matter along a shear plane parallel to a slope

solar day

The 24-hour Earth day

Solonetzic soils

Soils with significant salt accumulations

spreading centre

The large-scale fissure in the Earth’s crust separating divergent plates

stock

The smallest size of discordant intrusion

stoss side

The shallowly sloped convex side of a bedload sediment formation

Stratification

Layering in sedimentary rock

stratum

A rock layer; pl., strata

Streak

The colour of the powdered form of a mineral

Stream discharge

The amount of water that passes through a particular cross-sectional area of a stream per unit of time

Streams

Flowing bodies of water

striations

Grooves in rock created by glaciers dragging rock over it

strike

A measurement of the compass orientation of bedding planes, fault planes, and fold axes of rock

subduction

The riding up of a less dense plate over a denser plate, which is then pushed into the mantle and eventually recycled

supercontinents

Continents consisting of all land on Earth connected, leaving one massive ocean

Superposed streams

Streams that develop on beds over folded rock

syncline

The downward fold in a rock layer

terminal moraine

Glacial deposit at the farthest point reached by an ice front

terraces

Flat elevated plains on either side of the stream’s channel and floodplain

Texture

A visual description of the size of the minerals in the rock

theory

A hypothesis that has become widely accepted

thrust fault

A reverse fault in which the fault plane has a dip of less than 45°

till

Unstratified, poorly sorted glacial deposit]

transform boundaries

A meeting of plates that move parallel to each other

transform plate boundary

A meeting of plates at which the plates slide past each other

transformations

For soils, processes changing materials from one form to another

translocations

For soils, processes causing materials to move from one zone to another within the soil.

transport capacity

For ice, the quantity of particles of rock that it can carry

Transportation

Movement of sediments, especially by wind, water, or ice

Transported soils

Soils that are eroded from slopes and carried downhill

Trellis drainage

A waterflow pattern of parallel trunks and tributaries

turbulent flow

The following of irregular and overlapping paths by fluid particles

U-shaped valley

A glacier-formed valley with steep sides and a wide base

ultramafic

Of igneous rock, consisting of very little feldspars, no quartz, and considerable magnesium and iron

unconformities

Erosive surfaces with younger rocks deposited on top

uniformitarianism

The principle stating that Earth processes unfolding today unfolded in the same way and at the same rate in the past

valley

The sloping areas around a stream

valley glaciers

River-like glaciers formed in mountain ranges

varve

A pair of sediment layers formed by one year’s seasonal lake-surface freezing and thawing

vein

A concordant intrusion created when magma solidifies in cracks that are irregular and localized

Vertisolic soils

Clay-rich soils with high shrink potential when dry and high swell potential when wet

volcanic ash

The smallest particles of pyroclastic igneous rock

volcanic island

A volcano formed in water that is visible above sea level

volcanic island arc

A series of volcanic islands parallel to a convergence boundary

volcanic rocks

Extrusive igneous rocks

Water-laid deposits

Glacial meltwater outwash deposits

Weathering

The process that breaks down rock at the surface of Earth

windward slope or stoss slope

The convex, upstream-facing profile of ripples and dunes

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A Brief Introduction to Geology and Geomorphology Copyright © by Nahgeib Miller. All Rights Reserved.

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