A1: Indigenous Peoples: A Brief History
For many of us, information contained in history books is considered an accurate reflection of our past. But what happens when that information is not factual or true? What happens when history reflects the perspective of “those who held the most power [and] chose the stories that were to become a part of history” (Johnson, n.d., para 2). What happens when history is used as a tool of the powerful to justify and retain power? Canadian history, as told by history books, has “discounted, ignored, and erased from history” (Johnson, n.d., para 2) the existence and contributions of Indigenous peoples. This chapter looks to the seldom acknowledged vibrant life being lived on Turtle Island long before colonization by Europeans. If we are to understand the present, it is important to have more than the colonizers’ version of history.
Pre-Colonial Contact
Typically, for decades, the Canadian history shared and taught began with colonization — with explorers and adventurers discovering a vast land that was sparsely populated by savages. Thankfully, that narrative is beginning to change. What can be said though with certainty about what life was like on Turtle Island before colonization?
Given the vastness and climate diversity of the land now known as Canada, it is important to consider how the way of life would have differed for people living in different regions of this land. One of the things that would have been common though is a connection to water not just for survival, but as a significant cultural signifier. The traditions and ways of life of the many nations across Turtle Island were influenced by the water features near them.
A lot of what is known about the way of life on Turtle Island pre-contact comes from the archeological evidence, but also from the journals and reports of the early colonists. We know that plants were being used for medicinal purposes, maple sugaring was common, and corn, beans, squash, rice, and other vegetables were being harvested.
Pan-Indigenizing, making overarching statements that apply to all Indigenous people, is problematic. This is especially the case when it comes to governance and leadership. From the stories and traditions that have been passed down, some communities were hierarchical, either with patriarchal or matriarchal leadership, while others relied solely on the circle governance model of all voices being heard in decision-making. It is also known that Two-Spirit people were highly revered and looked to for guidance as they hold the gifts of both genders and can see things from more than one gender viewpoint.
One final element of life to mention here is that of cooperation and sharing. Many alliances, confederacies, and treaties between nations were held long before colonization. These were always undertaken in the spirit of cooperation, the sharing of resources, trade, and peace.
For a detailed look at what is known about the way of life pre-contact, see: The Standard of Living Before European Settlement.
PBS aired a four-episode series called Native America that examines the way of life in the Americas before colonization. While heavily focused on the United States and South America, much can be learned about the history of the land we are presently on through this series. You can access the series through clips provided on the Native America in the Classroom website.
Colonial History and Legacy
It is important to understand that the history of colonization begins with rather peaceful and mutually beneficial interactions between Europeans and First Nations and Inuit populations. During first contact, Europeans relied on Indigenous people for successful trade and even survival. Early on there was an agreement between Indigenous people and Europeans to share the land. Both parties could see the mutual benefits of their trade relationship. This posture of friendship by Europeans was a facade used to win over trust in order to establish invasive strategies to displace Indigenous people.
A key strategy in the domination of Turtle Island is the Doctrine of Discovery; a doctrine of superiority that legitimized the colonization of sovereign Indigenous nations globally in the name of Christianity. This global take-over included the land of Indigenous people in what is now Canada.
The Doctrine of Discovery claimed that if land was vacant, it could be claimed by explorers in the name of the Monarchy. Since Indigenous people were non-Christian this meant they were less than human (savages), and therefore since the land was uninhabited by humans, Christian Europeans had the right to colonize whatever land they discovered.
The notion of terra nullius, meaning empty land, was also used to legitimize colonization. If the land was empty of humans, it was free for the taking. Since Indigenous people were non-Christian, they were uncivilized, nonhuman, or savage, and therefore the land was terra nullius and taking it was justified.
The Royal Proclamation
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 is a document that outlined European settlement of Indigenous land. King George III issued this document to provide guidelines of how Britain could claim territory. While much of the language in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 can be difficult to understand, the essence of the Proclamation is that Indigenous rights and territory are recognized by the Crown (at the time the British King but now the federal government). The Proclamation acknowledges that Indigenous title to land will continue to exist and that it would continue to exist as such unless ceded by a treaty. At the time, it was only the Crown that could purchase land and anyone that wished to buy land had to buy it from the Crown.
Although the Proclamation promises protection of Indigenous lands (when the proclamation states: their land shall never be molested or disturbed), this is still a colonial document that establishes a colonial view of land as possession. Also, it is a document that was created without the consultation of Indigenous peoples.
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 is still a legitimate official document. Despite this, the settlement of Europeans began to grow in numbers, mostly without consultation or negotiation with Indigenous peoples of the territory. Sometimes, however, treaties were established between Indigenous peoples and the government to ensure Indigenous people were compensated for the land taken, although the fairness of these treaties are contested.
The following video provides an overview of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and its impact.
The Indian Act
Although Indigenous people had laws that were established long before colonization, the federal government wanted a more structured relationship of control over them, their communities, lands, and resources. The Indian Act was created with the purpose of assimilating First Nations people into European-Canadian society. The Indian Act has been historically discriminatory and oppressive, which has contributed to several violations of human rights. Many amendments have been made to the Act over the years but it is still a current piece of legislation used to outline various rules and regulations involving reserve land, governmental responsibilities of band councils, and other aspects of life for Indians with status. It is the Indian Act that defines who can and cannot acquire status.
For more information on the Indian Act, visit the webpage 21 Things You May Not Have Known About the Indian Act and read the list.
Treaties
Intent
The traditions and protocols of Indigenous treaties existed long before first contact with Europeans. Indigenous people had engaged in their own forms of governance for hundreds of years; sharing resources and building alliances between nations. For First Nations people, treaties are considered sacred. To honour their sacredness, protocols and negotiations involved ceremonial aspects such as a pipe ceremony or an exchange of symbolic items.
The peaceful and harmonious alliances between Indigenous groups that were formed hundreds of years ago still exist today. One of the most well-known examples of this is the Haudenosaunee Confederacy (also known as Six Nations or Iroquois Confederacy) and is considered the first democracy. The Haudenosaunee includes Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, and later included Tuscarora. There is also the Three Fires Confederacy beginning in the 1600s that is made up of Ojibway, Potawatomi, and Odawa nations. The Wabanaki Confederacy dates as far back as the 1680s and includes the Mi’kmaq, Wolastoqey, Peskotomuhkatiyik, Abenaki, and Penobscot.
The Dish with One Spoon treaty between the Anishinaabe, Mississaugas, and Haudenosaunee nations living around the Great Lakes is an example of the spirit and intent in which First Nations would have entered into treaty agreements with Europeans. The sharing of resources for the sustenance of all in a spirit of peace and friendship was at the foundation of the treaty process from a First Nations perspective.
During early contact with Europeans, First Nations began negotiating peaceful co-existence with the newcomers. A well-known example of this is the Two-Row Wampum between the Haudenosaunee and the Dutch that would ensure friendship, peace, and respect for as long as the sun shines, the grass grows, and the rivers flow. Indigenous groups across Turtle Island were familiar with the process of negotiation and treaty-making by the time of European contact; however, they were not prepared for the different approaches to the treaty process that Europeans would bring.
The Treaty Relationship
Treaties are not a thing of the past; they are living agreements with current obligations. We are all treaty people, and it is our responsibility to become educated on what it means to be a treaty partner.
Treaties are legally binding agreements that set out the rights, responsibilities and relationships of First Nations and the federal and provincial governments. Ontario, where Seneca Polytechnic is located, and other areas in Canada, would not exist as it is today without treaties. They form the basis of the relationship between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. Although many treaties were signed more than a century ago, treaty commitments are just as valid today as they were then (Ontario.ca, n.d.). A map of the many treaties that make-up Ontario is below. As you review the map, consider what Ontario would look like today if indigenous peoples were not removed from their land.
To gain more knowledge of what it means to be a treaty person, see We are all Treaty People below, a video that promotes Treaty Education within the Mi’kma’ki Territory (Nova Scotia).
The Government of Canada under the current Trudeau Liberal government has established ten principles respecting the Government of Canada’s relationship with Indigenous peoples. As you read through these principles, consider how well the Government (Crown) is doing in living up to these principles, and what could you be doing to hold the government accountable to upholding these principles?
According to the GOC (2021) “these Principles are a starting point to support efforts to end the denial of Indigenous rights that led to disempowerment and assimilationist policies and practices. They seek to turn the page in an often troubled relationship by advancing fundamental change whereby Indigenous peoples increasingly live in strong and healthy communities with thriving cultures. To achieve this change, it is recognized that Indigenous nations are self-determining, self-governing, increasingly self-sufficient, and rightfully aspire to no longer be marginalized, regulated, and administered under the Indian Act and similar instruments” (para. 6).
When looking at treaties, it’s important to consider the different worldviews of Indigenous Peoples and European settlers. For Indigenous Nations, treaties were viewed as an equal relationship where both nations can live together and share the land. On the other hand, European settler governments didn’t view Indigenous Peoples as equals. They viewed treaties as a way to assimilate and remove Indigenous Peoples from their lands (Historica Canada).
Conclusion
The nation of Canada was founded on patriarchal, monarchist, Christian, white European colonialism. This chapter has presented some of this history and its ongoing impact on people who are First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. While some progress and change is happening, a very long road to reconciliation lies ahead for Canada and Indigenous peoples. In our next chapter, we’ll examine Canada’s path towards reconciliation.
Attributions
This page has been edited and remixed from the following sources. Supplemental information has been provided by Tricia Hylton.
College Libraries Ontario. (n.d.). Maamwi. The Learning Portal. https://tlp-lpa.ca/maamwi
“Skoden” Copyright © 2022 by Seneca College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
References
CBC News. (2018). How to talk about Indigenous people [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEzjA5RoLv0
Chippewas of Rana First Nation. (2016). Justice Murray Sinclair on the Royal Proclamation of 1763 [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dSQsyZDGoX0&t=2s.
Government of Canada. (n.d.). Principles of respecting the Government’s of Canada relationship with Indigenous Peoples. Canada’s System of Justice. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/principles-principes.html.
HistoricaCanada.ca. (n.d.) Treaties in Canada: Education guide. http://education.historicacanada.ca/files/104/Treaties_Printable_Pages.pdf
Johnson, S. (n.d.) Historical primer. Native land digital. https://native-land.ca/resources/teachers-guide/
Ontario.ca. (n.d.). Treaties in Ontario: By the Numbers [Infographic]. First Nations, Inuit and Metis. iao-treaties-in-toronto-infographic-en-2021-03-10.pdf (ontario.ca).
TheFPSChannel. (2021). Treaty education [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RElug0TiAZw
TVO Today. (2019). The Indian Act Explained [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhBrq7Ez-rQ
One important area of primary research undertaken when embarking on any large scale project entails “public engagement,” or stakeholder consultation. Public engagement is the broadest term used to describe the increasingly necessary process that companies, organizations, and governments must undertake to achieve a “social license to operate.” Stakeholder engagement can range from simply informing the public about plans for a project, to engaging in more consultative practices like getting input and feedback from various groups, and even to empowering key community stakeholders in the final decision-making process.
For projects that have social, economic, and environmental impacts, stakeholder consultation is an increasingly critical part of the planning stage. Creating an understanding of how projects will affect a wide variety of stakeholders is beneficial for both the company initiating the project and the people who will be affected by it. Listening to stakeholder feedback and concerns can be helpful in identifying and mitigating risks that could otherwise slow down or even derail a project. For stakeholders, the consultation process creates an opportunity to be informed, as well as to inform the company about local contexts that may not be obvious, to raise issues and concerns, and to help shape the objectives and outcomes of the project.
What is a Stakeholder?
Stakeholders include any individual or group who may have a direct or indirect “stake” in the project – anyone who can be affected by it, or who can have an effect on the actions or decisions of the company, organization, or government. They can also be people who are simply interested in the matter, but more often they are potential beneficiaries or risk-bearers. They can be internal – people from within the company or organization (owners, managers, employees, shareholders, volunteers, interns, students, etc.) – and external, such as community members or groups, investors, suppliers, consumers, policy makers, etc. Increasingly, arguments are being made for considering non-human stakeholders such as the natural environment (Driscoll & Starik, 2004). The following video, Identifying Stakeholders (2018) further explains the process of identifying stakeholders.
Stakeholders can contribute significantly to the decision-making and problem-solving processes. People most affected by the problem and most directly impacted by its effects can help you
- understand the context, issues and potential impacts,
- determine your focus, scope, and objectives for solutions, and
- establish whether further research is needed into the problem.
People who are attempting to solve the problem can help you
- refine, refocus, prioritize solution ideas,
- define necessary steps to achieving them, and
- implement solutions, provide key data, resources, etc.
There are also people who could help solve the problem, but lack awareness of the problem or their potential role. Consultation processes help create the awareness of the project to potentially get these people involved during the early stages of the project.
Knowledge Check
Stakeholder Mapping
The more a stakeholder group will be materially affected by the proposed project, the more important it is for them to be identified, properly informed, and encouraged to participate in the consultation process. It is therefore critical to determine who the various stakeholders are, as well as their level of interest in the project, the potential impact it will have on them, and the power they have to shape the process and outcome. You might start by brainstorming or mind-mapping all the stakeholders you can think of. See Figure 7.5.1 as an example.
Once you have identified stakeholders who may be impacted, organize them into categories or a matrix. One standard method of organizing stakeholders is to determine which are likely to be in support of the project and which are likely to oppose it, and then determine how much power or influence each of those groups has (see Figure 7.5.2). For example, a mayor of a community has a strong level of influence. If the mayor is in full support of the project, this stakeholder would go in the top right corner of the matrix. Someone who is deeply opposed to the project, but has little influence or power, would go at the bottom left corner.
A matrix like this can help you determine what level of engagement is warranted: where efforts to “consult and involve” might be most needed and most effective, or where more efforts to simply “inform” might be most useful. You might also consider the stakeholders’ level of knowledge on the issue, level of commitment (whether in support or opposed), and resources available.
Levels of Stakeholder Engagement
There are various levels of engagement, ranging from simply informing people about what you plan to do to actively seeking consent and placing the final decision in their hands. This range, presented in Figure 7.5.3, is typically presented as a “spectrum” or continuum of engagement from the least to most amount of engagement with stakeholders.
Review the following video, What is Stakeholder Engagement (2020), for an additional overview of this process.
Depending on the type of project, the potential impacts and the types and needs of stakeholders, you may engage in a number of levels and strategies of engagement across this spectrum using a variety of different tools (see Table 7.5.1). Your approach may focus on one or several of these:
- Inform: Provide stakeholders with balanced and objective information to help them understand the project, the problem, and the solution alternatives. (There is no opportunity for stakeholder input or decision-making.)
- Consult: Gather feedback on the information given. The level of input can range from minimal interaction (online surveys, etc.) to extensive. It can be a one-time contribution or ongoing/iterative opportunities to give feedback to be considered in the decision-making process.
- Involve: Work directly with stakeholders during the process to ensure that their concerns and desired outcomes are fully understood and taken into account. Final decisions are still made by the consulting organization, but with well-considered input from stakeholders.
- Collaborate: Partner with stakeholders at each stage of decision-making, including developing alternative solution ideas and choosing the preferred solution together. The goal is to achieve consensus regarding decisions.
- Empower: Place final decision-making power in the hands of stakeholders. Voting ballots and referenda are common examples. This level of stakeholder engagement is rare and usually includes a small number of people who represent important stakeholder groups.
| Inform | Consult | Involve / Collaborate / Empower |
|---|---|---|
|
|
|
Knowledge Check
Basic Steps for a Consultation Process
There is no single “right” way of consulting with stakeholders. Each situation will be different so each consultation process will be context-specific and will require a detailed plan. A poorly planned consultation process can be less than successful as it can lead to a lack of trust between stakeholders and the company. Therefore, it is critical that the process be carefully mapped out in advance, and that preliminary work is done to determine the needs and goals of the process and the stakeholders involved. In particular, make sure that whatever tools you choose to use are fully accessible to all the stakeholders you plan to consult; An online survey is not of much use to a community that lacks robust Wi-Fi infrastructure. Consider the following steps:
- Situation Assessment: Who needs to be consulted about what and why? Define internal and external stakeholders, determine their level of involvement, interest level, and potential impact, their needs and conditions for effective engagement.
- Goal-setting: What is your strategic purpose for consulting with stakeholders at this phase of the project? Define clear understandable goals and objectives for the role of stakeholders in the decision-making process. Determine what questions, concerns, and goals the stakeholders will have and how these can be integrated into the process.
- Planning/Requirements: Based on situation assessment and goals, determine what engagement strategies to use and how to implement them to best achieve these goals. Ensure that strategies consider issues of accessibility and inclusivity and consider vulnerable populations. Consider legal or regulatory requirements, policies, or conditions that need to be met. Determine how you will collect, record, track, analyze and disseminate the data.
- Process and Event Management: Keep the planned activities moving forward and on-track, and adjust strategies as needed. Keep track of documentation.
- Evaluation: Design an evaluation metric to gauge the success of the engagement strategies; collect, analyze, and act on the data collected throughout the process. Determine how will you report the results of the engagement process back to the stakeholders.
Effective communication is the foundation of stakeholder consultation. The ability to create and distribute effective information, develop meaningful relationships, build trust, and listen to public input is essential. The basic communication skills required for any successful stakeholder engagement project include:
- Effective Writing: the ability to create clear and concise written messages using plain language and structural conventions.
- Visual Rhetoric: the ability to combine words, images, and graphics to support, clarify, and illustrate ideas and make complex issues understandable to a general audience.
- Public Speaking/Presenting: the ability to present information to large audiences in a comfortable and understandable way. The ability to create effective visual information that increases the audience’s understanding.
- Interpersonal and Intercultural Skills: the ability to relate to people in face-to-face situations, to make them feel comfortable and secure, and to be mindful of cultural factors that may affect interest level, accessibility, impact, values, or opinions.
- Active Listening: the ability to focus on the speaker and portray the behaviors that provide them with the time and safety needed to be heard and understood. The ability to report back accurately and fully what you have heard from participants.
XXXXXXGuidelines for Conducting Human Research
Should the opportunity arise to conduct research requiring human subjects, you must first check-in with your professor or workplace manager who will determine if an application must be submitted to the Research Ethics Board (REB) at the institution or organization.
When conducting human research, the basic guidelines in the chart below are typically part of the process of ensuring that you are transparent and careful with how you approach your research and subjects.
Recruiting Participants
When recruiting potential participants, you must give them the following information before you begin:
- Student researcher(s) name(s): Inform them of your name and contact information
- Affiliation: Provide a) the name of your institution, b) your course name and number, and c) your instructor’s name and contact information
- Purpose: Describe the purpose of your research (objectives), and the benefits you hope will come from this research (overall goal). Your research should not involve any deception (e.g., claiming to be gathering one kind of information, such as "do you prefer blue or green widgets?", but actually gathering another kind, such as "what percentage of the population is blue/green color blind?").
Informed Consent
You must gain the informed consent of the people you will be surveying, interviewing, or observing in non-public venues. This can be done using a consent form they can sign in person, or an “implied consent” statement on an electronic survey. The consent form should include all the information in the “recruiting” section above; In addition, you should
- inform participants that their participation is voluntary and that they may withdraw at any time without consequence, even if they have not completed the survey or interview,
- disclose any and all risks or discomfort that participation in the study may involve, and how these risks or discomfort will be addressed, and
- ensure that all participants are adults (19 years of age or older) and fully capable of giving consent; do not recruit from vulnerable or at-risk groups, and do not collect demographic data regarding age, gender, or any other information not relevant to the study (e.g., phone numbers, medications they are taking, whether they have a criminal records, etc.).
Managing the Data
Participants should be told what will happen to the data you gather:
- In the case of surveys, the data is anonymous if you do not track who submitted responses. In anonymous surveys, let participants know that once they submit their survey, it cannot be retrieved and removed from the overall results.
- Let survey participants know a) that your research results will be reported without their names and identifiers, b) where the data will be stored, c) how it will be "published", and d) what will happen to the raw data once your project is complete
- Let interview participants know how their information will be used and if their names will be included or cited.
There may be additional issues that must addressed, such as accessibility and cultural considerations, but those listed above are the most essential. If you are unsure whether a particular line of inquiry or method of data collection requires ethics approval, you should ask your instructor, and your instructor should contact Seneca's Office of Research and Innovation. Most importantly, you should always be completely transparent and honest about what and how you are researching.
It may seem like “a lot of fuss” to go through simply to ask people whether they prefer blue widgets or green widgets, but there are important reasons for these guidelines. In the past, people posing as students have conducted “surveys” on campus for unethical reasons, asking students questions that were inappropriate and even harassing. People participating in your research need to be reassured that you are doing this for a legitimate reason, and must be able to contact the relevant faculty member or the campus research ethics office to verify that you have authority to do this research.
For larger scale research projects, such as for a capstone course, an honour’s or master’s thesis, or a dissertation, students must apply for ethics approval with their academic supervisor before doing any research involving human subjects. Failure to obtain ethics approval before conducting research may result in the data not being accepted as part of the project, thesis or program. It may prevent work from being accepted for publication, and can result in a university audit or academic integrity investigation.
XXXXXXDesigning a Survey
When designing a questionnaire to give to the public, you must avoid doing anything that would cause physical or emotional harm to your participants. For example, be careful how you word sensitive or controversial questions in surveys and during interviews. Be careful to avoid inserting unintended bias or asking leading questions. You want to design questions to get meaningful and accurate responses rather than ambiguous information that is impossible to quantify or analyze. For more detailed information on how to design effective and ethical questionnaires, see Purdue University's OWL site for information on Creating Good Interview and Survey Questions.
If you plan to conduct a survey as part of your research project, you may be asked to provide your instructor with detailed information regarding your research methodology. Commonly requested details are in the checklist below.
Students wishing to do human research to collect data for a class project may be asked to provide their instructor the following information:
- A brief description of the project in lay language that can be understood by the participants and clearly identifies that this is a course-based project; this must include the course name and number, the instructor’s name and contact information, and the names of all persons involved in collecting data for the project
- A full description of all data collection methods, procedures, and instruments, as well as expectations regarding the amount of time required for participation; copies of any questionnaires must be provided for the instructor’s approval
- A copy of the informed consent form that will be read and signed by the participants
- A sample script you will use to explain to participants that their participation is entirely voluntary and that they can withdraw at any time, without explanation or consequences
- The means by which participants’ anonymity will be protected and data will be kept confidential
- How the raw data, including tapes, digital recordings, notes, and other types of data will be disposed of at the end of the project
- The way in which the results will be presented and/or disseminated.
Additional Resources
For information on developing stakeholder consultation with indigenous communities, read Part I: Stakeholder Consultation. For a recent and local example of a stakeholder engagement plan, see the University of Victoria’s “Campus Greenway Engagement Plan (University of Victoria Campus Planning and Sustainability, n.d.). A significant step in this plan -- a Design Charrette -- was implemented in the fall of 2018; the results of that engagement activity, presented in a Summary Report (.pdf) (University of Victoria Campus Planning and Sustainability, 2018), and it resulted in changes and augmentation of the original plan based on stakeholder feedback.
References
Association of Project Management. (2020). What is stakeholder engagement [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzqvF9uJ1hA&t=1s
Clennan, R. (2007, April 24). Part 1: Stakeholder consultation. International Finance Corporation. PDF. https://documentcloud.adobe.com/link/track?uri=urn:aaid:scds:US:1e1092b2-09d5-47c1-b6bd-be2a96f46081.
Driscoll, C. & Starik, M. (2004). The primordial stakeholder: Advancing the conceptual consideration of stakeholder status for the natural environment. Journal of Business Ethics, 49(1), pp. 55-73. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000013852.62017.0e
Hagan, M. (2017, August 28). Stakeholder mapping of traffic ticket system. Open Law Lab. Available: http://www.openlawlab.com/2017/08/28/stakeholder-mapping-the-traffic-ticket-system/ . CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.
Mungikar, S. (2018). Identifying stakeholders [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8uZiGB8DeJg
Last, S. (2019). Technical writing essentials. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/technicalwriting/
Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). (n.d.). Creating good interview and survey questions. Purdue University. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/conducting_research/conducting_primary_research/interview_and_survey_questions.html
QuestionPro. (n.d.). 10 steps to a good survey design [Infographic]. Survey design. https://www.questionpro.com/features/survey-design/
University of Victoria Campus Planning and Sustainability. (n.d.). Engagement plan for: The University of Victoria Grand Promenade landscape plan and design guidelines. Campus Greenway. University of Victoria. https://www.uvic.ca/campusplanning/current-projects/campusgreenway/index.php
University of Victoria Campus Planning and Sustainability. (2018). The Grand Promenade Design Charrette: Summary Report 11.2018," Campus Greenway. University of Victoria. https://www.uvic.ca/campusplanning/current-projects/campusgreenway/index.php